A Hemisphere of Shared Experience
The story of the Americas is a story of connections. For millennia, the vast landmasses of North and South America were home to peoples who built complex civilizations, developed profound knowledge of their environments, and created cultures of remarkable diversity. Then, beginning in the late fifteenth century, these worlds collided with Europe in an encounter that transformed the globe. The result was a new world, not a “New World” discovered, but one forged in the crucible of conflict, exchange, and resilience.
The Americas are not simply two continents lying between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. They are a region defined by shared histories, intertwined experiences, and enduring connections that cut across national borders. The colonial heritage of the hemisphere, expressed through slavery, the dispossession of Indigenous peoples, economic dependence, and movements for freedom, has created a common ground of experience that links the countries of North and South America together.
Understanding this shared history matters because the Americas continue to shape one another. The flow of peoples, goods, knowledge, and finances has promoted interdependence and integration across the hemisphere. From the pre-Hispanic empires to colonization, from European hegemony to independence movements, from migration to multiculturalism, the history of the Americas is a history of entanglement.
This article will explore that history, from the first human settlements to the complex nations of the twenty-first century. It is a story of achievement and tragedy, of resistance and adaptation, and of the ongoing struggle to build societies that live up to the ideals of freedom, equality, and justice. We will examine the distinct histories of the nations that make up the Americas today while recognizing the shared experiences that connect them.
The First Americans: Migration and Settlement
The Peopling of the Hemisphere
The history of the Americas begins with the arrival of the first peoples. The prevailing scholarly understanding is that humans entered the Americas from Asia via a land bridge called Beringia, which connected Siberia to Alaska during the last Ice Age. As massive glaciers locked up enormous quantities of water, sea levels dropped, exposing a vast expanse of land that allowed hunter-gatherers to follow the herds of mammoth, bison, and caribou that roamed the grasslands.
This migration was not a single event but a series of movements over thousands of years. Genetic and archaeological evidence indicates that the earliest Americans arrived between 15,000 and 20,000 years ago, though some controversial evidence suggests even earlier dates. The first inhabitants were skilled big-game hunters, using distinctive stone tools and adapting to a vast and changing landscape. Over time, as the climate warmed, these early peoples spread throughout the hemisphere, reaching the tip of South America by at least 12,000 years ago.
The diversity of Indigenous cultures that ultimately emerged reflects the immense variety of environments across the Americas. From the Arctic tundra to the Amazon rainforest, from the Great Plains to the Andes mountains, peoples adapted to their surroundings, developing specialized knowledge of plants, animals, and ecological systems that sustained their communities for millennia.
The Rise of Civilizations
The transition from hunter-gatherer societies to settled agricultural communities was a pivotal moment in the history of the Americas. This development occurred independently in multiple regions, with two primary cradles of civilization emerging: Mesoamerica and the Andes.
In the Andean region of South America, the Norte Chico civilization, also known as Caral-Supe, flourished between 3000 and 1800 BCE. This pre-ceramic culture built monumental platform mounds and sunken plazas, evidence of a sophisticated society with complex social organization. The Norte Chico civilization is one of the oldest known civilizations in the world, demonstrating that the peoples of the Americas developed complex societies without external influence.
In Mesoamerica, the Olmec civilization, approximately 1600 to 400 BCE, is often considered the “mother culture” of the region. The Olmec laid the foundations for the later Maya, Zapotec, and Aztec civilizations. These cultures developed complex calendars, written languages, mathematics, astronomy, and impressive architecture, including pyramid-temples. Notably, they invented the wheel, though it was used primarily for toys rather than practical transport.
The Maya civilization, approximately 2000 BCE to 900 CE, built upon these foundations, creating one of the most sophisticated civilizations in the ancient world. The Maya developed a fully written language, advanced mathematical concepts including the concept of zero, and an astronomical system that accurately predicted celestial events. Their cities, scattered across present-day Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, and Honduras, featured monumental architecture, including pyramid-temples, palaces, and observatories.
In the highlands of Mexico, the Aztec Empire, approximately 1325 to 1521 CE, emerged as a dominant power. The Aztecs built their capital, Tenochtitlan, on an island in Lake Texcoco, creating a city of remarkable size and complexity. The empire was built on military conquest, tribute, and a sophisticated system of governance. At its height, the Aztec Empire controlled much of central Mexico.
In the Andes, the Inca Empire, approximately 1400 to 1533 CE, established the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The Inca built an extensive network of roads, developed sophisticated agricultural terracing, and created a system of governance that integrated diverse peoples across the Andean highlands. Their capital, Cusco, was a center of political, religious, and cultural authority.
In North America, the Mississippian culture, approximately 800 to 1600 CE, built enormous earthen mounds and supported large, city-like settlements, such as Cahokia in present-day Illinois. Cahokia was a major cultural and trade center, with a population estimated at tens of thousands at its peak.
The Diversity of Indigenous Societies
Beyond these major civilizations, the Americas were home to countless other societies. In the Arctic, Indigenous peoples developed sophisticated technologies for surviving in extreme cold. In the Pacific Northwest, communities built complex social structures based on abundant marine resources. In the Great Plains, peoples adapted to a mobile lifestyle following the bison herds. In the Amazon, Indigenous communities developed agroforestry systems that shaped the rainforest itself.
The political systems of these societies varied widely. Some were organized around villages and extended families, while others developed more complex kingdoms and empires. Leadership was often connected to ancestry, spiritual authority, and respect within the community. Justice systems typically emphasized mediation and restoring social harmony rather than punishment alone.
These societies were not isolated. Trade networks connected communities across vast distances, exchanging goods, ideas, and cultural practices. The peoples of the Americas were part of a living, dynamic world long before the arrival of Europeans.
The Columbian Exchange and European Conquest
The Meeting of Two Worlds
The voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492 marked a turning point in world history. They brought an end to the isolation of the Americas and initiated a period of contact, exchange, and conquest that radically transformed both the “Old” and “New” Worlds. The genetic and cultural isolation that had existed since the end of the Ice Age was shattered forever.
The initial encounters between Europeans and Indigenous peoples were shaped by misunderstanding, curiosity, and conflict. The Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch all sought to exploit the resources of the Americas, leading to the establishment of colonial empires that spanned the hemisphere.
The impact of European contact on Indigenous populations was devastating. European diseases, to which Indigenous peoples had no immunity, caused catastrophic population declines. Smallpox, measles, influenza, and other diseases swept through communities, killing millions and disrupting societies. In some regions, population losses reached 90 percent or more.
The Spanish and Portuguese Empires
Spain established a vast empire in the Americas, from the present-day Southwestern United States and Florida, down through the Caribbean and Mexico, to the southern tip of South America. The Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires was brutal and rapid, driven by the pursuit of gold, silver, and other resources.
The Spanish colonial system was characterized by extraction and control. The encomienda system granted Spanish colonizers the right to demand labor and tribute from Indigenous communities. This system was exploitative and destructive, leading to further population decline and social disruption. The Catholic Church also played a major role, seeking to convert Indigenous peoples to Christianity while often undermining their traditional beliefs and practices.
Portugal, under the Treaty of Tordesillas, claimed what is mostly present-day Brazil. Portuguese colonization followed a similar pattern of extraction, focusing on the production of sugar using enslaved African labor. The plantation system that developed in Brazil and the Caribbean became a model for the brutal exploitation of enslaved peoples.
The British, French, and Dutch Empires
England established colonies along the Atlantic coast of North America, while France settled in Quebec and other parts of Canada, claiming a vast interior. The Netherlands established New Netherland, which would become New York, and held territory in the Caribbean and parts of South America.
The British colonies in North America developed differently from the Spanish and Portuguese empires. Many British colonists sought religious freedom or economic opportunity, and they established settlements that were more focused on agriculture and commerce. The British system also allowed for a greater degree of local governance, leading to the development of representative institutions that would later shape American democracy.
French colonization focused on trade, particularly the fur trade, rather than extensive settlement. French colonists established relationships with Indigenous communities, often working with them as trading partners. This relationship was more cooperative than that of the Spanish and British, though it was still shaped by colonial power dynamics.
The Dutch established a commercial empire centered on the Caribbean and the northern coast of South America. Dutch colonies were driven by trade and sugar production, and they became deeply entangled in the Atlantic slave trade.
The Colonial Order and Its Legacies
The colonization of the Americas was a brutal process characterized by two major, intertwined forces: the dispossession of Indigenous peoples from their lands and the importation of enslaved African labor to extract wealth. The phrase “New Worlds for All,” used by historian Colin Calloway, captures the complex reality of this period. It was a time of immense suffering and upheaval, but also one where new cultures, peoples, and institutions emerged from the fusion of Native American, European, and African traditions.
This fusion is evident in languages. Spanish, English, and Portuguese became the most widely spoken languages in the Americas. In religion, a unique form of Catholicism developed in Latin America, blending European and Indigenous elements. In architecture, cuisine, and the arts, the exchanges were profound.
The colonial period, which lasted roughly three centuries, developed rigid racialized social hierarchies to govern these new societies. The “casta” system in Spanish America categorized people based on their racial ancestry, creating a complex hierarchy that determined social status and opportunity. These hierarchies persisted long after independence, shaping the social structures of the Americas for generations.
The Nations of the Americas
North America
The United States of America, the most populous country in the Americas, emerged from the British colonies along the Atlantic coast. Its history is marked by westward expansion, the dispossession of Indigenous peoples, the conflict over slavery that led to the Civil War, and its emergence as a global superpower. The United States is a federal republic with a diverse population shaped by immigration from around the world. Its economy is the largest in the world, and its cultural influence extends across the globe.
Canada, the second largest country in the world by land area, developed from French and British colonial settlements. Canada achieved independence from Britain through a gradual process, culminating in the Constitution Act of 1982. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is known for its multiculturalism, natural resources, and strong social welfare system.
Mexico, the third largest country in the Americas, was the center of the Aztec Empire and later became the heart of New Spain. Mexico achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and experienced a tumultuous history, including the Mexican-American War, the French intervention, and the Mexican Revolution. Today, Mexico is a federal republic with a diverse economy and a rich cultural heritage that blends Indigenous and Spanish influences.
Greenland, the world’s largest island, is an autonomous territory of Denmark. Its population is primarily Indigenous Inuit, and its history is shaped by its Arctic environment. Greenland’s economy is dependent on fishing and subsidies from Denmark, though its strategic location and natural resources have attracted increasing international attention.
Central America and the Caribbean
Guatemala, the most populous country in Central America, was the center of the Maya civilization. It achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and has experienced a history of political instability, civil war, and social inequality. Guatemala is a multiethnic country with a large Indigenous population.
Belize, the only English-speaking country in Central America, was a British colony until 1981. Its history is shaped by the Maya civilization, British colonial rule, and its location on the Caribbean coast. Belize is a parliamentary democracy with a diverse population.
Honduras was home to the Maya civilization and later became a Spanish colony. It achieved independence in 1821 and has experienced political instability, military coups, and economic challenges. Honduras is a republic with a mixed economy.
El Salvador, the smallest country in Central America, was home to the Pipil civilization and later became a Spanish colony. It achieved independence in 1821 and experienced a brutal civil war in the late twentieth century. El Salvador is a republic with a growing economy.
Nicaragua was home to various Indigenous groups and later became a Spanish colony. It achieved independence in 1821 and experienced political instability, dictatorship, and revolution. Nicaragua is a republic with a mixed economy.
Costa Rica was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1821. Costa Rica is known for its political stability, democratic institutions, and commitment to environmental conservation. It is a republic with a growing economy and no standing army.
Panama was a Spanish colony that achieved independence from Spain in 1821 and later from Colombia in 1903. Panama is known for the Panama Canal, which connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and is a vital trade route. Panama is a republic with a service-based economy.
Cuba was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1898 after the Spanish-American War. Cuba later experienced a revolution led by Fidel Castro in 1959, establishing a socialist state. Cuba’s history is shaped by its colonial past, its proximity to the United States, and its revolutionary legacy.
Haiti, the first independent Black republic in the world, emerged from a successful slave revolt against French colonial rule. Haiti achieved independence in 1804 but experienced poverty, political instability, and natural disasters. Haiti is a republic with a mixed economy.
Dominican Republic shares the island of Hispaniola with Haiti. It achieved independence from Haiti in 1844 and from Spain in 1865. The Dominican Republic is a republic with a growing economy and a diverse population.
Jamaica was a Spanish and later British colony that achieved independence in 1962. Jamaica is known for its vibrant culture, including reggae music, and its tourist industry. Jamaica is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy.
Trinidad and Tobago was a Spanish and later British colony that achieved independence in 1962. Trinidad and Tobago is known for its diverse population, oil and gas industry, and carnival celebrations. Trinidad and Tobago is a republic.
Puerto Rico is a territory of the United States. It was a Spanish colony until 1898, when it was ceded to the United States after the Spanish-American War. Puerto Rico’s political status is a subject of ongoing debate.
South America
Brazil, the largest country in South America, was a Portuguese colony that achieved independence in 1822. Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world and has the largest economy in Latin America. Brazil is a federal republic with a diverse population and a rich cultural heritage.
Argentina was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1816. Argentina is known for its vast plains, including the Pampas, and its European-influenced culture. Argentina is a federal republic with a developed economy.
Colombia was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1819. Colombia is known for its biodiversity, coffee production, and the legacy of the Spanish colonial period. Colombia is a republic with a growing economy.
Chile was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1818. Chile is known for its long coastline, the Atacama Desert, and its wine production. Chile is a republic with a developed economy.
Peru was the center of the Inca Empire and later became a Spanish colony. Peru achieved independence in 1821. Peru is known for its ancient ruins, including Machu Picchu, and its rich Indigenous heritage. Peru is a republic with a mixed economy.
Venezuela was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1821. Venezuela is known for its oil reserves and its history of political instability. Venezuela is a federal republic with a mixed economy.
Ecuador was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1822. Ecuador is known for the Galapagos Islands and its diverse geography. Ecuador is a republic with a mixed economy.
Bolivia was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1825. Bolivia is known for its high-altitude geography, its Indigenous population, and its history of political instability. Bolivia is a republic with a mixed economy.
Paraguay was a Spanish colony that achieved independence in 1811. Paraguay is known for its Guarani heritage and its history of conflict. Paraguay is a republic with a mixed economy.
Uruguay was a Spanish and Portuguese colony that achieved independence in 1825. Uruguay is known for its political stability, its social welfare system, and its European-influenced culture. Uruguay is a republic with a developed economy.
Guyana, the only English-speaking country in South America, was a British colony that achieved independence in 1966. Guyana is known for its diverse population, its natural resources, and its disputed border with Venezuela. Guyana is a republic.
Suriname, the smallest country in South America, was a Dutch colony that achieved independence in 1975. Suriname is known for its diverse population and its rainforest. Suriname is a republic.
French Guiana is an overseas department of France. It is the only European territory in South America and is known for the Guiana Space Centre, which is used by the European Space Agency.
The Age of Revolutions and Independence
The American Revolution
The 18th and 19th centuries were a time of revolution across the Americas. The ideas of the Enlightenment, which championed liberty, equality, and self-determination, crossed the Atlantic and inspired a new generation to challenge colonial rule.
The United States was the first to break away, declaring independence from Great Britain in 1776. The American Revolution was shaped by the colonists’ grievances against British rule, including taxation without representation, restrictions on trade, and the presence of British troops. The revolution’s leaders, including George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin, were inspired by Enlightenment ideas and sought to create a new nation based on republican principles.
The American Revolution was not just a war for independence. It was also a struggle over the meaning of freedom and equality. The revolution’s ideals inspired debates about slavery, women’s rights, and the rights of Indigenous peoples. While the revolution did not immediately extend freedom to all, it established a framework for future struggles for justice.
The Haitian Revolution
The Haitian Revolution, which took place from 1791 to 1804, was the most radical and transformative revolution in the Americas. It began as a slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, present-day Haiti, where enslaved Africans had been forced to produce sugar and coffee on plantations under brutal conditions.
Led by figures such as Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe, the enslaved peoples of Saint-Domingue rose up against their oppressors. The revolution was marked by intense violence, but it also reflected the ideals of liberty and equality that had inspired the American and French revolutions.
The Haitian Revolution was the only successful slave revolt in history. It led to the establishment of an independent Haiti in 1804, making it the first independent Black republic in the world. The revolution was also a blow to the institution of slavery, demonstrating that enslaved peoples could successfully fight for their freedom.
Latin American Independence Movements
Between 1810 and 1825, most of Spanish America rose up against Spain. The independence movements were led by figures such as Simón Bolívar, José de San Martín, and Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. These leaders were inspired by Enlightenment ideas and sought to create independent nations in the Americas.
The independence movements were shaped by a variety of factors, including economic grievances, racial tensions, and political divisions. The wars of independence were often brutal, pitting royalists against patriots, and they resulted in the collapse of the Spanish colonial system.
Brazil achieved independence from Portugal in 1822 through a more peaceful process. The Brazilian prince regent, Dom Pedro, declared independence and established a constitutional monarchy. Brazil’s transition to independence was relatively smooth, avoiding the violence that characterized other Latin American independence movements.
The independence movements of Latin America were not just about replacing one ruler with another. They were also about defining what freedom and decolonization meant in a region long shaped by colonial ideologies. The new nations faced the challenge of building political and economic systems that reflected their diverse populations and histories.
Building Nations, Confronting Legacies
The Challenge of Nation-Building
The post-independence period in the Americas was marked by the challenge of building stable, inclusive nations. The new countries inherited colonial borders, economies, and social structures that were often ill-suited for independent development.
In the United States, the early republic was shaped by debates over the balance of power between the federal government and the states, the expansion of slavery, and the rights of Indigenous peoples. The Constitution, adopted in 1787, established a framework for governance but left many issues unresolved. The nation’s growth was marked by westward expansion, the dispossession of Indigenous peoples, and the violent struggle over slavery.
In Latin America, the post-independence period was characterized by political instability, economic dependency, and the legacies of colonialism. The new nations struggled to build strong institutions and faced challenges from both conservative and liberal factions. The rise of caudillos, or military strongmen, often reflected the weakness of democratic institutions and the concentration of power in the hands of elites.
The Struggle over Slavery
The issue of slavery was a central conflict in the Americas throughout the nineteenth century. The institution of slavery had been central to the colonial economy, and the new nations struggled to address its legacies.
In the United States, the conflict over slavery led to the Civil War, which lasted from 1861 to 1865. The war was the bloodiest in American history, and it resulted in the abolition of slavery and the passage of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments. However, the end of Reconstruction in 1877 marked the beginning of a long period of racial segregation and discrimination that would continue into the twentieth century.
In Latin America, the abolition of slavery was a slower process. Brazil was the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery, in 1888. The post-abolition period was marked by continued racial inequality, as formerly enslaved people faced discrimination and limited economic opportunities.
Indigenous Peoples and Nation-Building
The nations of the Americas were built on the dispossession of Indigenous peoples. The expansion of European settlements, the pursuit of natural resources, and the ideology of manifest destiny led to the displacement and destruction of Indigenous communities.
In the United States, the government pursued policies of Indian removal, forced relocation, and cultural assimilation. The Trail of Tears, the forced removal of the Cherokee people from their lands, is a symbol of the brutality of these policies. The reservation system confined Indigenous peoples to marginal lands, while policies such as the Dawes Act sought to break up tribal landholdings and destroy Indigenous cultures.
In Latin America, Indigenous peoples also faced dispossession and discrimination. The post-independence states often sought to assimilate Indigenous populations into a broader national identity, erasing their distinct cultures and languages. Indigenous resistance continued throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as communities fought to preserve their lands and traditions.
The Modern Americas: Challenges and Transformations
Economic Development and Inequality
The twentieth century saw significant economic development in the Americas, but it also saw persistent inequality. The United States emerged as a global economic power, while many Latin American countries continued to depend on commodity exports and face economic instability.
The Great Depression of the 1930s had a profound impact on the Americas. The economic crisis led to widespread unemployment and poverty, prompting governments to adopt new policies to address the crisis. In the United States, the New Deal expanded the role of government in the economy and established a social safety net. In Latin America, the crisis prompted a shift toward import-substitution industrialization, as governments sought to reduce dependence on foreign markets.
The post-World War II period saw the growth of the American economy, fueled by consumer spending, technological innovation, and government investment. The United States emerged as a global superpower, competing with the Soviet Union for influence around the world.
Latin America, however, continued to face economic challenges. The region was heavily dependent on commodity exports, making it vulnerable to price fluctuations. Debt crises, economic inequality, and political instability persisted. The neoliberal reforms of the late twentieth century, which promoted privatization, deregulation, and free trade, had mixed results, often increasing inequality while failing to deliver sustained economic growth.
Political Movements and Social Change
The twentieth century was also a time of significant social and political change. In the United States, the civil rights movement challenged racial segregation and discrimination, leading to the passage of landmark civil rights legislation. The movement was inspired by the principles of equality and justice and was led by figures such as Martin Luther King Jr., Rosa Parks, and countless others.
The civil rights movement also inspired other movements for social justice, including the women’s movement, the Chicano movement, and the LGBTQ rights movement. These movements challenged long-standing inequalities and expanded the meaning of American democracy.
In Latin America, the twentieth century was marked by revolution, dictatorship, and democratization. The Mexican Revolution, which took place from 1910 to 1920, was one of the first major revolutions of the twentieth century, challenging the concentration of power and wealth in the hands of a few. The Cuban Revolution, which took place in 1959, brought Fidel Castro to power and established a socialist state in the Caribbean.
Throughout Latin America, authoritarian regimes often suppressed political opposition, leading to human rights abuses. The “dirty wars” of the 1970s and 1980s in Argentina, Chile, and other countries resulted in the torture, disappearance, and murder of thousands of people. The return of democracy in the late twentieth century marked a new chapter in the region’s history, though it was challenged by persistent inequality and political polarization.
Migration and Multiculturalism
The Americas have always been shaped by migration. The movement of peoples from Europe, Africa, and Asia has transformed the demographic and cultural landscape of the hemisphere. In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, migration has continued to play a significant role in the history of the Americas.
In the United States, immigration has been a source of cultural richness and economic vitality, but it has also been a source of conflict. The country has struggled to balance the ideals of opportunity and inclusion with the anxieties of cultural change and economic competition.
In Latin America, migration has also been significant. The movement of people from rural to urban areas has transformed the region’s demographic profile. Emigration to the United States and other countries has created new diasporic communities and transnational connections.
The Americas are also characterized by multiculturalism. The region’s history of Indigenous, European, African, and Asian interactions has created a rich tapestry of cultural traditions. The celebration of cultural diversity is a key feature of the modern Americas, reflecting the region’s history of exchange, adaptation, and resilience.
A Hemisphere Connected
The history of the Americas is a story of interconnectedness and shared experience. From the first migrations that brought peoples to the hemisphere to the complex nations of the twenty-first century, the Americas have been shaped by the movement of peoples, the exchange of goods and ideas, and the enduring struggle for freedom and justice.
The colonial heritage of the Americas has left a lasting legacy. The experiences of slavery, indigeneity, dependence, and freedom movements have created a common ground of experience in the Western Hemisphere. The flow of peoples, goods, knowledge, and finances have promoted interdependence and integration that cut across borders and link the countries of North and South America together.
Understanding this shared history matters more than ever. The Americas continue to shape one another, and the challenges of the twenty-first century, including economic inequality, political polarization, climate change, and migration, cannot be addressed without recognizing the region’s interconnectedness.
The history of the Americas is also a story of resilience. Despite centuries of dispossession, discrimination, and struggle, the peoples of the Americas have persisted. Indigenous communities have preserved their cultures and traditions. Enslaved peoples and their descendants have fought for freedom and justice. Immigrants have built new lives and contributed to the cultural richness of the hemisphere.
The history of the Americas is not a simple story. It is a story of conflict and cooperation, of tragedy and triumph, of division and unity. It is a story that belongs to all who share this hemisphere, and it is a story that continues to unfold.
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